Today the United States is the dominant power in world affairs, and that status seems assured. Yet in the decade following the ratification of the Constitution, the republic's existence was contingent and fragile, challenged by domestic rebellions, foreign interference, and the always-present danger of collapse into mob rule. Carol Berkin reveals that the nation survived almost entirely due to the actions of the Federalist leadership-George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and John Adams. Reacting to successive crises, they ...
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Today the United States is the dominant power in world affairs, and that status seems assured. Yet in the decade following the ratification of the Constitution, the republic's existence was contingent and fragile, challenged by domestic rebellions, foreign interference, and the always-present danger of collapse into mob rule. Carol Berkin reveals that the nation survived almost entirely due to the actions of the Federalist leadership-George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and John Adams. Reacting to successive crises, they extended the power of the federal government and fended off foreign attempts to subvert American sovereignty. As Berkin argues, the result was a spike in nationalism, as ordinary citizens began to identify with their nation first, their home states second. While the Revolution freed the states and the Constitution linked them as never before, this landmark work shows that it was the Federalists who transformed the states into an enduring nation.
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With many books addressing the early history of the United States under the Constitution, it is difficult to present this story in a fresh, insightful manner. Carol Berkin succeeds admirably in capturing the critical role this early history played in the development of American constitutionalism and the significance of the achievements of Presidents Washington and Adams in her book, "A Sovereign People, The Crises of the 1790s and the Birth of American Nationalism" (2017). Berkin, the author is many books on American history, is the Presidential Professor of History Emerita at Baruch College and the Graduate Center, CUNY. I have read one of her earlier books, "Civil War Wives: The Lives and Times of Angelina Grimke Weld, Varina Howell Davis, and Julia Dent Grant."
Berkin explores the achievement of the American Federalists, particularly Washington, Adams, and Hamilton. The Federalists were those who supported the ratification of the American Constitution. They argued that the Constitution was necessary to create a strong, effective central government rather than a loose confederation of states. The Constitution was ratified, but it was a close thing. With the election of George Washington as the first president, many Americans still remained skeptical of the constitution and the Federal government and feared it would deprive them of their liberties.
Berkin explores the development of American constitutionalism and of Americans' slow placement of loyalty and patriotism in the national government through discussion of four crises in the administrations of the first two presidents. The first two of these crises, the Whiskey Rebellion and the Genet Affair, occurred during the Washington Administration. The third and fourth crises, the XYZ Affair and the Alien and Sedition Acts, occurred under Washington's successor, President Adams. Some historical accounts tend to see the handling of these crises as a bridge to Democratic government beginning in 1800 with the presidency of Jefferson. Berkin finds much to be admired in the Federalists and in their handling of each of these four crises. She writes:
Modern Americans often assume that nationalism was an obvious and even automatic response to the transition from colonies to an independent country after the Revolutionary War. But this assumption misses the reality that the core of nationalism -- loyalty to a country and its government and its shared identity as its citizens -- was a result of the hard work of governance. The governments of Washington and Adams did not find perfect solutions to the crises facing their country, but over the course of their administrations Americans came to acknowledge that the federal government was the best-equipped institution to deal with critical domestic and foreign problems."
Berkin offers good background and detailed discussion of each of the four crises she describes. She shows how each crisis constituted a threat to the fledgling American nation rather than an exaggerated local incident that the government tried to exploit for its own purposes. The resolution of each crises worked to strengthen the Federal government and Americans sense of patriotism and loyalty to the government, even when some Americans might disagree with individual decisions.
Thus, Berkin argues that the Whiskey Rebellion, over the government's power to tax, was resolved largely through the great personal admiration Americans had for George Washington. The Genet Affair, involving a French minister's attempt to end-run the national government to secure support for revolutionary France, led to a realization of the Executive Branch's role in the conduct of foreign affairs beyond the personal prestige of the individual holding the presidency. The XYZ affair involving an attempt by the French minister to extort bribes and loans in exchange for peace with France, led to Americans of all political stripes uniting in the face of this foreign effort to separate Americans from each other and from their government. The Alien and Sedition Acts showed both that commitment to the national government was stronger than commitment to party and that criticism of government enactments was based on the Constitution itself, rather than on a rejection of constitutionalism and of nationalism.
Berkin concludes:
"The arc of nationalism can thus be traced through the crises of the 179os. The trust placed in Washington as an individual, so critical in the approval of his handling of the Whiskey Rebellion, was transformed during the Genet affair into a respect for the office he held. The XYZ affair helped Americans recognize their shared identity, a national identity that limited the power of provincialism to shape their views and their political choices. And the challenge to the Alien and Sedition acts demonstrated that there was no longer an anti-Constitution movement but a loyalty to the Constitution that could withstand a difference in interpretation of the powers it invested in the federal government. This loyalty was fundamental to the acceptance of the notion of a loyal opposition in politics. And the idea of a loyal opposition helped sustain the Union until the struggle over the survival of slavery created a breach too broad and too deep to be mended without bloodshed."
Berkin writes clearly and well, perhaps as a result of long years experience in college teaching. She states the goals of her book clearly in the introduction, presents her materials clearly and coherently in short, digestible sections in each chapter, repeats and summarizes her materials as she proceeds, and reaches a compelling understandable conclusion in the final section of her book.
Berkin's "A Sovereign People" tells an important story about the growth of American nationalism and about the importance of loyalty. It reminded me in today's difficult time about the importance of American nationalism and about how Americans of differing political views and persuasions can disagree with one another while retaining a shared sense of respect together with a strong commitment to American identity.
