Excerpt: ...9, 9, and finally, after some efforts, 17 taps. Thus there was a rise from 9 to 19, then a fall back to 9 and after eight tests the correct response. As long as we attempt to explain this fact as error on the part of the horse, so long will it remain inexplicable, but the moment we regard it from the point of view of the psychology of the tension of expectation, it becomes perfectly plain. The same holds true for the curious predilection which Hans appeared to have for the numbers from 2 to 4, especially for 3 ...
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Excerpt: ...9, 9, and finally, after some efforts, 17 taps. Thus there was a rise from 9 to 19, then a fall back to 9 and after eight tests the correct response. As long as we attempt to explain this fact as error on the part of the horse, so long will it remain inexplicable, but the moment we regard it from the point of view of the psychology of the tension of expectation, it becomes perfectly plain. The same holds true for the curious predilection which Hans appeared to have for the numbers from 2 to 4, especially for 3 (see page 68 ). As a matter of fact the Pg 148 cause of this lies in nothing other than the inadequate concentration of attention on the part of the questioner and less often in an extravagant expenditure of concentration, which explodes immediately after the first tap on the part of Hans (as in the case of my first tests); but usually the cause lay in a complete lack of concentration, though the same result may be produced by various causes. It is usually after 2 to 4 taps of the horse's foot that the questioner, who does not concentrate, makes his first move which naturally puts an end to the tapping on the part of the horse. As a rule this jerk follows immediately upon the second tap. (On the other hand, relaxation of attention is very difficult upon the first tap. See page 95 ). The questioner, however, would expect further tapping and therefore would not bring his body back to a completely erect position and the result would be a 3, the last unit of which would be given by the final tap with the left foot. Here we also obtained light as to the answers which Hans gave in those tests in which the method was that of "procedure without knowledge." These responses had nothing to do with the problem, for neither the horse nor any one else knew the solution. But in the horse's responses the degree of tension of the questioner's concentration was faithfully mirrored. An experimenter who was as skillful in concentrating as Mr. von Osten, ...
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